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The Politics of Bilingualism to Monolingualism in Guatemala / La política del bilingüismo al monolingüismo en Guatemala

 Four indigenous Guatemalan children with color overlay and lines drawn over their eyes and mouths
(By Alberto Esquit Choy, guest author) Lea la entrada de blog en español

The following phrases capture a linguistic phenomenon expressed by Maya Kaqchikel youth in Guatemala: “My parents know and speak Kaqchikel, but they didn’t teach me.” “I don’t understand anything.” “I understand, but I can’t speak it.” “Now I want to learn it.” These expressions are heard from people mostly between the ages of 20 and 30 years old.

The Kaqchikel population is located within the central highlands of Guatemala and, according to the 2018 census in Guatemala, the total Kaqchikel population is approximately 1,068,356. With respect to linguistic demography, the Inter-American Development Bank (2021) in its study about Indigenous Nations in Guatemala, titled, Demographic Challenges, Linguistic and Socioeconomic: A Comparative Analysis of the 2002 and 2018 Censuses, found that 72% of the population aged 80 or older speaks Kaqchikel, while just 27% of the population between the ages of 5 and 9 speaks Kaqchikel. This is an indicator that the Kaqchikel language is not being transmitted to younger populations and is at serious risk of disappearing. Additionally, in 2002, there was a total of 432,998 Kaqchikel speakers, and in 2018, there was a total of 411,089. That is to say that from 2002 to 2018, the number of Kaqchikel speakers dropped by 21,909, or 5% of its population.

To analyze this linguistic phenomenon among the Kaqchikel population, it is important to consider a longer period of sociolinguistic change across three generations, as determined by different factors. A “first” generation of monolingual Kaqchikel speakers, a second generation of bilingual, Kaqchikel-Spanish speakers, and concluding with a third generation of monolingual Spanish-speaking Kaqchikels. 

Linguistic attitudes and decisions from each generation with respect to the next one can be considered the product or result of linguistic policies promulgated from the state and sites of power.

That is, family decisions with respect to what languages to teach their children to speak, depend upon whether parents have experienced opportunities or exclusions based on language use. This is determined by the language policies implemented across society. Such experiences are dependent upon: what language is used to access opportunities (economic, political, social, etc.)? In the case of Guatemala, to access opportunities, the official language is Spanish or Castilian, as promulgated by the constitution since the founding of the Republic of Guatemala. Mayan languages, on the other hand, are relegated to recognized national languages, which does not mean they are used to conduct public administration work or carry out public services. In this context, the choices made by parents are not individual, autonomous, and free when the speakers of one language are privileged over others, and those not privileged are degraded as second-class citizens or denied their rights. 

In this way, language policy can be seen as a determining factor in the decisions and attitudes of families to pass on their languages to their children or not. Some of these factors include 1) socioeconomic conditions that significantly worsen or improve the lives of the population in which language is a medium through which to meet basic needs and enable access to economic opportunities, 2) the educational system as an influential instrument in the ideological and paradigmatic formation of the population, and 3) the kind of society desired by the architects of social, economic, and educational policies of the country.

In the 1950s and 60s, the majority of the Kaqchikel-speaking population from the central highlands of Guatemala were the last generation of monolingual Kaqchikels, termed as such to analyze and interpret the above linguistic phenomenon. This last generation of monolingual Kaqchikels would be understood as the traditional Indigenous, using terminology from Richard Newbold Adams’s studies in the 1950s and 60s about the Indigenous population, ethnicity, and sociocultural changes. A generation of Mayas born in the first quarter of the 20th century maintained their autochthonous cultural characteristics, such as language, dress, weavings, and other elements of their autochthonous economy. Cultural characteristics and an economy that were believed to maintain the country’s backwardness and condition of poverty. 

In fact, during that period there were two forms of exchanging goods and services in two very different languages. One was based on capital to generate earnings and profit and the other was based on goods and primarily services for the community’s well-being. For the latter, payment was made more in terms of respect and benefits to honorable people, primarily in service of the health and wellness of the population.

To resolve the so-called Indigenous problem, the traditional Indigenous, a term applied to those who maintained autochthonous cultural characteristics—like language and means of communication and their autonomous and independent economy from the capitalist economy—needed to be assimilated into the national culture. The national culture consisted of the cultural characteristics practiced by the non-Indigenous Ladino population, which were primarily European and Spanish cultural characteristics, such as, using the Spanish language.

The non-Indigenous Ladino population was a group that emerged from relationships and biological and cultural mixing between Spaniards, Creoles, and Kaqchikels. Ladinos were in contact with Maya communities and became agents of control over the governance of Maya communities.

Based on consideration of the so-called Indigenous problem, Indigenista policies and those of social assimilation were created and applied in communities with Indigenous populations to Hispanicize children in schools. The children of the traditional Indigenous were the target population to be assimilated and become modified Indigenous, another concept coined by Richard Adams.

Indigenista policies were implemented by the state in schools and by the Catholic Church in its schools founded for Indigenous populations. The state and Catholic Church are two institutions that have been imposed and have always been interested in the modification and indoctrination of the Indigenous population. This generation of modified Indigenous were systematically indoctrinated to “overcome their backwardness” and abandon their autonomous cultural characteristics. To a certain extent, the effects of this policy were disseminated to the Kaqchikel population to talk about “self-improvement of the Indigenous,” which mainly consisted of their Hispanicization.

Schools and Ladino monolingual Spanish-speaking teachers treated Indigenous students as monolingual Spanish speakers without methodologies and pedagogies for the teaching of the Spanish language. A good part of their teaching strategies was based on punishments and bans. A violent educational system that reached the point where Maya children were seen as and believed to be unintelligent and incapable of learning the Spanish language.

The traumas experienced by Indigenous communities led them to make the decision that they would only speak to their children in Spanish. This was a defense mechanism so that their children would not suffer the same social exclusions and discrimination that they themselves suffered. Schools were violent machines of teaching, not just of the Spanish language, but also of all foreign cultural characteristics that needed to be learned for the Indigenous to be accepted by and allowed entry into dominant society. In this way, Maya Kaqchikel-Spanish bilingual parents are leaving a generation of children and youth who are Spanish-speaking monolinguals. This issue and phenomenon have emerged historically across generations and centuries of ideological imposition.

Policies of monolingualism are still in effect and remain in force in Guatemalan society today without needing to be legislated into effect. Institutions (political, economic, social, etc.) keep them in effect without having to punish or threaten Mayan-language speakers. The majority of the Maya population has accepted and normalized the policy of Hispanicization without questioning it and abandoning their languages and cultures. Mayan languages, particularly Kaqchikel Mayan, are severely threatened. 

. . . . . . . . . .

La política del bilingüismo al monolingüismo en Guatemala

(Por Alberto Esquit Choy, autor invitado)

Aquí se presentan algunas expresiones de la dinámica lingüística que se escuchan entre los jóvenes mayas Kaqchikeles de Guatemala: “Mis padres sí saben y hablan Kaqchikel, pero a mí no me lo enseñaron.” “No entiendo nada.” “Entiendo, pero no lo puedo hablar.” “Ahora lo quiero aprender.” Son expresiones que se escuchan de personas que están mayoritariamente entre la edad de los 20 a 30 años.

La población Kaqchikel se ubica en el centro del territorio de Guatemala y según el censo de población del 2018, el total de población Kaqchikel es de 1,068,356. En su dinámica lingüística según los datos estadísticos recopilados y reportados por el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (2021) en el estudio de Pueblos Indígenas en Guatemala: desafíos demográficos, lingüísticos y socioeconómicos: análisis comparativo de los censos 2002 vs 2018, presenta los siguientes datos: el 72% de la población de 80 años de edad y más hablan el idioma Kaqchikel, mientras que los que están entre las edades de 5 a 9 años solamente el 27% habla el Kaqchikel. Este es un indicador de que no se está transmitiendo el idioma Kaqchikel a la población joven y está seriamente amenazado en desaparecer. Otro dato es que en el 2002 había un total de 432,998 hablantes de idioma Kaqchikel y para el 2018 había un total de 411,089. Es decir que en ese periodo, se redujo el numero de Kaqchikel hablantes en 21,909, un 5% de su población.

Para el análisis de este fenómeno lingüístico de la población Kaqchikel es necesario considerar un largo periodo de cambios de conceptos lingüísticos, de tres generaciones, determinado por diferentes factores. Una “primera” generación de monolingües Kaqchikel hablantes, una segunda generación de Kaqchikeles bilingües, Kaqchikel-español hablantes y termina con una tercera generación de Kaqchikeles monolingües español hablantes.

Las actitudes y decisiones en materia lingüística de cada una de las generaciones con respecto a la siguiente se pueden considerar como el producto o resultado de las políticas lingüísticas determinadas desde el gobierno y centros de poder. 

Es decir, la decisión de los padres con respecto a los hijos de qué idiomas enseñarles a hablar, depende de cómo el padre ha gozado de oportunidades o sufrido exclusiones. Esto determinado por las políticas lingüísticas implementadas dentro de la sociedad. Por lo tanto, depende de: ¿Qué idioma se utiliza para tener acceso a oportunidades? En el caso de Guatemala, para tener acceso a oportunidades, el idioma oficial es el español o castellano, legislado a nivel constitucional desde su conformación republicana. Los idiomas mayas relegados a idiomas nacionales reconocidos, que no implica convertirse en idiomas de la administración pública y de los servicios públicos. En este contexto, las decisiones de los padres no son decisiones individuales, autónomas y libres cuando los hablantes de un idioma son privilegiados sobre otros, que son relegados a un segundo plano o excluidos de sus derechos.

De esta manera se puede considerar las políticas lingüísticas como los factores que determinan las decisiones y actitudes de los padres para transmitir o no su idioma a sus hijos. Entre algunas de estas está: 1) las condiciones socioeconómicas que golpean fuertemente o favorecen la vida de la población a razón de cuál es el idioma como medio para satisfacer las necesidades básicas y permite el acceso a oportunidades y 2) el sistema de educación como instrumento ideológico y paradigmático de formación de la población y 3) el tipo de sociedad deseada por los diseñadores de las políticas sociales, económicas y educativas del país.

La última generación de monolingües kaqchikeles que se les llamará así por razones de análisis e interpretación del fenómeno lingüístico se da hasta los años 50s y 60s del siglo pasado, cuando la mayoría de la población Kaqchikel de la región centro-occidental de Guatemala solamente hablaban el idioma Kaqchikel. En la terminología de Richard Newbold Adams en sus estudios de los años de 1950 y 1960 sobre la población indígena, etnicidad y los cambios socioculturales, serían los indígenas tradicionales. Una generación de mayas que nació en el primer cuarto del siglo XX, que mantenían sus características culturales propias como el idioma, la vestimenta, sus tejidos y otros elementos de una economía propia. Una economía y elementos culturales que se consideró que mantenían el atraso y la pobreza del país. 

De hecho, para ese periodo se daban dos formas de intercambio de bienes y servicios practicados en dos idiomas totalmente diferentes. Uno que estaba basado en el capital para generar ganancias o plusvalía y el otro basado en la producción de bienes y principalmente servicios para el bienestar de la comunidad. Sobre esto último, el pago era más en términos de respeto y privilegios de servicios a las personas honorables, principalmente en el servicio de salud y bienestar de la población.

Para resolver el problema indígena como se le llamó al indígena tradicional que mantenía los elementos culturales propios como el idioma y medio de comunicación, su economía autónoma e independiente de la economía capitalista, había que integrarlos a la cultura nacional. La cultura nacional eran los elementos culturales practicados por la población ladina y que eran principalmente elementos culturales europeos y españoles, como el idioma castellano.

La población ladina fue un grupo surgido de la relación y mezcla biológica y cultural entre españoles, criollos y Kaqchikeles. Este grupo estuvo en contacto con las comunidades mayas y se convirtieron en agentes de control para la gobernabilidad de las comunidades mayas.

A partir de considerar el problema indígena, se crearon las políticas indigenistas y de integración social que fueron llevadas a las comunidades de población indígena, para la castellanización de los niños en las escuelas. La población meta u objetivo eran los hijos de los indígenas tradicionales que se modificarían para convertirse en los indígenas modificados, otro concepto acuñado por Richard Adams.

La política indigenista se implementó en las escuelas tanto por el Estado como por la Iglesia Católica en sus escuelas fundadas para la población indígena. Dos instituciones que se han impuesto y siempre han tenido interés en la modificación y adoctrinamiento de la población indígena. Esta generación de indígenas modificados fue sistemáticamente adoctrinada para superar su atraso y abandonar sus elementos culturales propios. En algún punto, el resultado de esta política se impregnó en la población Kaqchikel para hablar de la superación del indígena que implicaba principalmente su castellanización.

La escuela y los docentes ladinos monolingües castellano hablantes trato a los niños como monolingües castellano-hablantes sin metodología y técnicas didácticas para la enseñanza del idioma castellano. Buena parte de sus estrategias de enseñanza se hizo a base de castigos y prohibiciones. Un sistema de educación violenta que caló hasta verse y concebirse a los niños mayas como poco inteligentes e incapaces de aprender el idioma español.

Los traumas que llevaron los llevó a tomar la decisión de que a sus hijos solamente hablarían en castellano. Un mecanismo de defensa para que sus hijos no sufrieran las exclusiones y discriminación sufrida por ellos. Las escuelas eran máquinas violentas de enseñanza, no solo del idioma castellano, sino de todos los elementos culturales extraños que deberían aprender para ser aceptados y permitidos dentro de la sociedad dominante. De esta manera los padres bilingües en los idiomas mayas kaqchikel-español están dejando una generación de hijos y niños monolingües castellano hablantes. El tema y fenómeno trasciende aspectos históricos de generaciones y siglos de imposición ideológica.

Las políticas de monolingüismo se mantienen vigentes y mantiene su curso en la sociedad guatemalteca, sin necesidad de legislarlo. Las instituciones los mantienen vigentes sin necesidad de castigar y amenazar a los maya-hablantes. La mayoría de la población maya ha asumido la política de castellanización de manera natural sin cuestionarla y abandonando sus idiomas y cultura. Los idiomas mayas y el idioma Kaqchikel, particularmente está fuertemente amenazado.

. . . . . . . . . .

Alberto Esquit Choy is the author of “Los indígenas también queremos ser guatemaltecos:” entre la exclusión y la democracia (1950–1985) [“We, Indigenous people, want to be Guatemalans too:” Between exclusion and democracy (1950–1985)] (Maya’ Wuj Press, 2017). He is currently the President of the Kaqchikel Linguistic Community and has previously served as the President of the Academy of Mayan Languages of Guatemala. Esquit Choy received his Ph.D. in Anthropology from Vanderbilt University.

Alberto Esquit Choy es autor de “Los indígenas también queremos ser guatemaltecos:” entre la exclusión y la democracia (1950–1985) (Editorial Maya’ Wuj, 2017). Él es actualmente el Presidente de la Comunidad Lingüística Kaqchikel Cholchi’ y ha servido anteriormente como Presidente de la Academia de las Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala. Esquit Choy es doctor en Antropología por la Universidad de Vanderbilt.

Co-translated and co-edited by/cotraducido y coeditado por Roberto Young and Molly Hamm-Rodríguez.

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